This is easy to understand by considering that several identical capacitors in series are essentially equivalent to a single capacitor with a thicker layer of a dielectric (the fact that these is a piece of conductor in the middle is of no significance for its operation) - and therefore, a lower ability to cancel out the electric field generated by unbalanced charges deposited on the plates; consequently, several capacitors in parallel resemble one capacitor with a larger plate surface area. PNP) counterpart. Field effect transistors with multiple "competing" gate electrodes can also be seen, and are useful in signal mixing. When the circuit is initially turned on, the MOSFET on the right will turn on first, as its gate is driven through a slightly smaller resistor. At a receiving station the current coming in from the cable has simply to be passed through the coil of the 'speaker' before it is sent into the ground, and the wandering light spot on the screen faithfully represents all its variations to the clerk, who, looking on, interprets these, and cries out the message word by word. When we consider that every word is, on the average, composed of fifteen separate waves, we may better appreciate the rapidity with which the siphon can move.

The minor features of the recorder have been simplified by other inventors of late; for example, magnets of steel have been substituted for the electro-magnets which influence the swinging coil; and the ink, instead of being electrified by the mouse-mill, is shed on the paper by a rapid vibration of the siphon point. As the paper moves over the pulleys a delicate hair line is marked, straight when the siphon is stationary, but curved when the siphon is pulled from side to side by the oscillations of the signal coil. It is essential for the fine marking of the siphon that the ink should neither be too strongly nor too feebly electrified. But before it reached the Red Sea the cable had broken down, and the instrument was returned dismantled, to be superseded at length by the siphon recorder, in which the marking point is a fine glass siphon emitting ink, and the moving body a light coil of wire hung between the poles of a magnet. It was to supply such a desideratum for cable work that Sir William Thomson invented the siphon recorder, his second important contribution to the province of practical telegraphy.

We have thus far followed out the recorder in its practical application to submarine telegraphy. Moreover, to curb the prolongation of the signals due to induction, each signal was made by two opposite currents in succession-a positive followed by a negative, or a negative followed by a positive, as the case might be. The condensers are merely used to sharpen the action of the current, and render the signals more concise and distinct on long cables. Their p-n-p counterparts (PNP) operate with the emitter being more positive, and conduct when a current flows from the emitter to the base. Sir William has done more than any other electrician to introduce accurate methods and apparatus for measuring electricity. The electrician knew that the mistral would blow before long, and, as it rarely blows for less than three days at a time, that rather rude wind, so dreaded by the Marseillaise, was doubly dreaded by him. From three separate sources invisible currents are led to its principal parts, and are at once physically changed. To give even a brief account of all his physical researches would require a separate volume; and many of them are too abstruse or mathematical for the general reader.

Attempted replications often give contradictory results, erratically. The moving body must be quite free to follow the undulations of the current, and at the same time must record its motions by some indelible mark. This implies that open-circuit voltages should rise with no upper bound, until the force is significant enough to create a conductive path through free space; that may require thousands or millions of volts in everyday cases, and therefore, is not a very realistic scenario. Switches: one of the most rudimentary electromechanical devices, switches interrupt and close circuits in response to an externally applied force. They are primarily used as signal amplifiers, impedance converters, and digital switches. Babbage was among the first to suggest that a lighthouse might be made to signal a distinctive number by occultations of its light; but Sir William pointed out the merits of the Morse telegraphic code for the purpose, and urged that the signals should consist of short and long flashes of the light to represent the dots and dashes.

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